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| − | The Chinese particle 了 has been traditionally divided into two broad categories: '''aspectual particle 了''' (AKA [[了1]]) and '''modal particle 了''' (AKA [[了2]]). However, for a word with as many varied grammatical uses, such broad classifications don't seem particularly helpful to learners. This article offers an alternative way to understand 了: by listing out specific uses and patterns without regard for traditional classifications, starting with the ones learners will want to learn right away, and moving into more and more complicated uses.
| + | #REDIRECT [[Uses of "le"]] |
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| − | == Beginner (A1) Uses of 了 ==
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| − | {| class="wikitable" style="width:50em; text-align:left"
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| − | ! Grammar Point (English) !! Pattern !! Examples!! 了 Type
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| − | |[[ASG8HVFN|Expressing "Excessively"]] || 太 + Adj + 了 || <span class="liju"><em>太</em> 好 <em>了</em> ! </span> || 了2
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| − | == Elementary (A2) Uses of 了 ==
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| − | {| class="wikitable" style="width:50em; text-align:left"
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| − | ! Grammar Point (English) !! Pattern !! Examples!! 了 Type
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| − | |[[ASGTSWBR|Expressing Completion with "''le''"]] || V + 了 || <span class="liju">她 去 <em>了</em> 北京。</span> || 了1
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| − | |[[ASGYKDNF|Questions with "''le ma''"]] || V + 了 + 吗？ || <span class="liju">北京 去 <em>了 吗</em>？</span> || 了1
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| − | |[[ASGJ36VN|Expressing Duration]] || Verb + 了 + [Duration] || <span class="liju">他 在 北京 住 了<em> 两 年</em>。</span> || 了2
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| − | |[[ASGSVF28|Expressing Duration of Inaction]] || [Duration] + 没 + [Verb Phrase] ) (+ 了) || <span class="liju">他 已经 <em>三 天 没</em> 洗澡 了。</span> || 了2
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| − | == Intermediate (B1) Uses of 了 ==
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| − | {| class="wikitable" style="width:50em; text-align:left"
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| − | ! Grammar Point (English) !! Pattern !! Examples!! 了 Type
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| − | |[[ASGLEVUV|Making Negative Adjectives Extreme with "''-si le''"]] || Adj + 死了 || <span class="liju">那 个 孩子 难 看 <em>死 了</em>。</span> || 了2
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| − | |[[ASGVME5V|Making Positive Adjectives Extreme with "''-ji le''"]] || Adj + 极了 || <span class="liju">你的 中文 好 <em>极了</em>。</span> || 了2
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| − | |[[XXXXXXXX|Making Adjectives Extreme with "''zui''"]] || 最 + Adj (+ 了) || <span class="liju">这 种 啤酒 <em>最 好 了</em>。</span> || 了2
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| − | |[[XXXXXXXX|Intensifying Adjectives Extreme with "''ke''"]] || 可 + Adj (+ 了) || <span class="liju">你 做 的 菜 <em>可 好吃 了</em>。</span> || 了2
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| − | |[[ASG6KUS5|Expressing "Much More" in Comparisons]] || N1 + 比 + N2 + Adj + 多了 || <span class="liju">我 <em>比</em> 你 高 <em>多 了</em>。</span> || 了2
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| − | |[[ASGT185D|Expressing Change of State with "''le''"]] || ……了 || <span class="liju">今天 我 25 岁 <em>了</em>。你的 衣服 脏 <em>了</em>。</span> || 了2
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| − | == Upper Intermediate (B2) Uses of 了 ==
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| − | {| class="wikitable" style="width:50em; text-align:left"
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| − | ! Grammar Point (English) !! Pattern !! Examples!! 了 Type
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| − | |Expressing "A bit too" || Adj + 了一点(儿) || <span class="liju">这个 东西 的 质量 是 <em>差 了 一点</em> 。</span> || 了2
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| − | |Sentence-Final "''le 1+2''" || ……了 || <span class="liju">我 明白 你 为什么 走 <em>了</em> 。</span> || 了1, 2
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| − | == Sources and further reading ==
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| − | === Books ===
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| − | * [[Common Chinese Patterns 330 (汉语常用格式330例)]] (pp. 6-8, 14, 29, 71, 85, 108, 145, 150, 153, 158) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/7802006473/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=allset-20&linkCode=as2&camp=217145&creative=399373&creativeASIN=7802006473 →buy]
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| − | * [[Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar]] (pp. 185-300, 362) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520066103?ie=UTF8&tag=allset-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=0520066103 →buy]
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| − | * [[Modern Mandarin Chinese Grammar: A Practical Guide]] (pp. 62, 190, 192, 213-4, 218-9, 226-32, 236-9, 243-6, 261-2, 264-5) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0415700108?ie=UTF8&tag=allset-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=0415700108 →buy]
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| − | * [[New Practical Chinese Reader 1 (新实用汉语课本1)]] (pp. 199-200) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/7561910401/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=allset-20&linkCode=as2&camp=217145&creative=399369&creativeASIN=7561910401 →buy]
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| − | * [[New Practical Chinese Reader 2 (新实用汉语课本2)]] (pp. 16-8, 55-6, 196-7, 217-8) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/7561911297/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=allset-20&linkCode=as2&camp=217145&creative=399369&creativeASIN=7561911297 →buy]
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| − | * [[外国人实用汉语语法(中英文对照)]] (pp. 312-313, 400, 423-35, 497-8, 502) [http://www.amazon.cn/mn/detailApp?_encoding=UTF8&tag=allset-23&linkCode=as2&asin=B001J0ADWA&camp=536&creative=3132&creativeASIN=B001J0ADWA →buy]
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| − | * [[简明汉语语法学习手册]] (pp. 62-72, 76-88) [http://www.amazon.cn/mn/detailApp/ref=as_li_ss_tl?_encoding=UTF8&tag=allset-23&linkCode=as2&asin=B0041UGAJU&camp=536&creative=3132&creativeASIN=B0041UGAJU →buy]
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| − | === Websites ===
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| − | * Mandarin Essential Grammar (Yale): [http://comet.cls.yale.edu/mandarin/content/le/grammar/changele.htm Change of State "le" 了]
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| − | * Mandarin Essential Grammar (Yale): [http://comet.cls.yale.edu/mandarin/content/Lele/grammar/Lele.htm Perfective –Le 了 Vs Particle Le 了]
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| − | * CTCFL (Oxford): [http://www.ctcfl.ox.ac.uk/Lang%20work/Aspect%20notes.htm The use of the particle 了]
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| − | * CTCFL (Oxford): [http://www.ctcfl.ox.ac.uk/Lang%20work/Aspect%20index.htm The exercises on the use of the aspectual particle 了]
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| − | * Chinese Teachers' Net: [http://pears.lib.ohio-state.edu/China/le.html On ''Le'']
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| − | * ChinesePod: [http://chinesepod.com/lessons/%E4%BA%86-le-somethings-about-to-happen Qing Wen - 了 (le): Something's About to Happen] (free podcast content)
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| − | * ChinesePod: [http://chinesepod.com/lessons/the-double-%E4%BA%86-le-phenomenon Qing Wen - The Double 了 (le) phenomenon] (free podcast content)
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| − | * ChinesePod: [http://chinesepod.com/lessons/the-glorious%E4%BA%86le-part-1 Qing Wen - The Glorious 了(le): Part 1] (free podcast content)
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| − | * ChinesePod: [http://chinesepod.com/lessons/the-glorious-%E4%BA%86le-part-2 Qing Wen - The Glorious 了(le): Part 2] (free podcast content)
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| − | === Academic Research ===
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| − | * Hooi Ling Soh and Meijia Gao, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities: [http://www.lingref.com/cpp/tls/2004/paper1510.pdf Perfective Aspect and Transition in Mandarin Chinese: An Analysis of Double –le Sentences] (PDF file)
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| − | * Marita Ljungqvist Ari, Lund University: [http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=21150&fileOId=912857 Aspect, tense and mood: Context dependency and the marker le in Mandarin Chinese] (PDF file)
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| − | * Limin Jin and Henriëtte Hendriks, Research Centre for English and Applied Linguistics: [http://www.rceal.cam.ac.uk/Publications/Working/Vol9/Jin.pdf The development of aspect marking in L1 and L2 Chines] (PDF file)
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| − | [[Category:Structures]]
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| − | [[Category:Particles]]
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